Autonomous mobility

Autonomous mobility is all the rage nowadays: not only are many countries adopting this rapidly advancing technology at a growing pace, but tech giants are also getting involved in partnerships in this area. However, autonomous vehicletechnology is not enough to create a service on its own: mobility operators still need to innovate so they can integrate this technology into their transportation offers and thereby provide autonomous mobility services that are integrated, secure, reliable and efficient. Further considerations include regulatory approaches and use cases, which vary from country to country.

Together, we will explore the international context, as well as the main use cases and business models for autonomous mobility. We will also discover how Keolis approaches this topic with its convictions, current projects and future outlook.

International context

Autonomous mobility is progressing rapidly, thanks to major rollouts by market leaders in the USA and China. In these countries, autonomous vehicle technology is well established and robotaxis are widely used. Waymo, a Google subsidiary, is a notable example: it carries out 250,000 trips a week in the United States and claims a significant share of the ride-sharing market (up to 27% in cities like San Francisco). The relevant business models continue to evolve, notably through partnerships between robotaxi suppliers and local mobility operators.

Europe is no exception to these trends. The main goal of autonomous mobility is to establish a presence in public transport, with a view to guaranteeing its affordability and addressing local mobility challenges. Autonomous vehicles can help to reduce regional disparities and offer inclusive transport solutions, as they can efficiently serve areas that are sparsely populated or poorly connected by traditional transport. Thanks to on-demand autonomous shuttles, autonomous driving provides a flexible, accessible transport solution that is less dependent on human presence. This is a considerable advantage when it comes to ensuring mobility for the elderly, the disabled or those without a driver's license, particularly in rural and outlying areas.

Another advantage is that autonomous mobility is a sustainable transport mode: fully electric, it plays an essential role in the sector's energy transition.

The sector is currently dominated by two technologies, which correspond to two very specific use cases: 

- Robotaxis for individual transport

- Robobuses and autonomous shuttles for public, shared or public-private transport

What are the right economic models for autonomous mobility?

Autonomous mobility is taking shape with several innovative business models:

- The partnership model is the most traditional: robotaxi providers work with local mobility operators to manage services locally and maintain relations with mobility authorities. This model enables operators to win or regain market share, while optimizing their financial situation. 

- Tesla offers a disruptive model: the company sells privately-owned autonomous vehicles that private individuals can hire out when not in use, thus creating a fleet of low-cost robotaxis. 

Finally, the public transport model, particularly in Europe, anticipates a reduction in operating costs of up to 15%, thanks to the automation of bus routes, the development of shared autonomous mobility services and the creation of shared supervision centers for autonomous vehicles.

By leveraging lower technology costs and large-scale production, autonomous mobility services should move from the experimental stage to global adoption by 2035 (Source: Getting on board with shared autonomous mobility, McKinsey, January 2025).

What are the right regulations for autonomous vehicles? 

Regulations surrounding autonomous mobility vary considerably from one country to the next. 

In the United States, the legal framework is flexible, allowing autonomous mobility services to operate under rapidly evolving local rules (state-by-state). The principle is based on the idea that everything that is not explicitly forbidden is permitted, thus encouraging innovation, with oversight carried out by a federal government agency (NHTSA). 

In China, the government plays an active role in promoting artificial intelligence and autonomous vehicle projects. This is reflected in the transformation of cities into “test zones”, where autonomous vehicle suppliers can carry out full-scale tests. 

In France, two regulatory frameworks exist and complement the European rules:

- the PACTE law (Plan d’Action pour la Croissance et la Transformation des Entreprises), adopted in May 2019, has broadened the framework for autonomous mobility experiments by authorizing, through derogation and subject to conditions, the circulation of autonomous vehicles as part of paid transport services. This makes it possible to test commercial services without a driver on board, anticipating a permanent deployment under the LOM law.

- the Loi d’Orientation des Mobilités (LOM), adopted in December 2019, authorizes –  under certain conditions – the commercial deployment of autonomous vehicles in public transport. It creates a dedicated legal framework, but their actual implementation will still depend on technical specifications expected from the Service Technique des Remontées Mécaniques et des Transports Guidés (STRMTG), notably on safety, remote supervision, service management in operation and integration on open roads.

These differences highlight the importance of adapting autonomous vehicle implementation strategies to local legal and regulatory conditions. 

Autonomous mobility is transforming the transportation landscape and public transport in particular. For mobility authorities, it offers unique opportunities to improve the efficiency, sustainability and accessibility of their services. 

State of the art of roadway autonomous mobility at Keolis

With deployments in 8 countries, Keolis is one of the leading public transport operators in the field of autonomous mobility, as the figures below demonstrate.

Please note that these figures only concern autonomous road mobility, and do not include the automated metros operated by the Keolis Group, nor the Urbanloop solution of automated capsules on light rail, which is featured later in this article.

Autonomous Mobility Testing Site (SEMA): a full-scale laboratory for autonomous driving

The only one of its kind in the world, the Autonomous Mobility Testing Site (SEMA) is located on the National Shooting Sports Center (CNTS, in Déols, 36), the training ground of the French Olympic and Paralympic teams. Since 2019, autonomous shuttles have been running on a circuit of over 5 kilometers, alongside other road users. The SEMA was fitted out to test vehicles in different traffic conditions, including intersections with connected traffic lights.

This private site comprising 80 hectares (197 acres) is open to the public all year round. This enables Keolis to drive under real conditions in a safe environment in order to prepare for future autonomous driving projects. The aim is to be able to develop services on fixed routes and/or on-demand transport that combines performance, reliability and above all safety, while meeting user needs. 

With a view to full vehicle autonomy, Keolis has been running tests without an on-board operator at SEMA since summer 2020. The aim of these tests is to verify all the conditions for implementing autonomous services, whether in terms of human aspects (customer experience, acceptability, passenger safety), technical aspects (smart traffic lights, V2X communication, etc.) or operational aspects (team training, operating procedures, etc.). Since June 2022, the date of the Paralympic Shooting World Cup, Keolis has been offering regular transport services to SEMA during competitions at the National Shooting Sports Center (CNTS). This has allowed Keolis to verify its test hypotheses and launch autonomous mobility services for athletes and visitors to the site.

Last but not least, SEMA is also the ideal training ground in autonomous mobility for the Group's operational teams: operators, service agents, supervisors, regulators, local managers and maintenance technicians. Today, this facility is a strategic asset for the Group and attracts industrial players from across the sector.

Challenges and opportunities: a new step forward with Level 4 autonomy 

As early as September 2016, the Keolis group carried out the very first autonomous shuttle experiment in Lyon in the Confluence district. In 2018, the French national strategy for autonomous vehicles was set up under the leadership of Mrs. Anne-Marie Idrac, the Senior Official for the autonomous vehicle development strategy. These strategic guidelines have enriched the regulatory framework, set priorities and defined precise use cases for autonomous driving.

Almost nine years later, the challenge is to ensure the large-scale rollout of fully autonomous vehicles, with no operator on board. Regulatory developments are shaping progress in this area:

- in France, the “LOM” law has allowed highly autonomous shuttles to be operated for certain use cases since December 2019. 

- at the European level, an approval framework for autonomous vehicles has been put in place, along with an amendment to the Vienna Convention which recognizes - in certain cases - that the driver is no longer necessarily a human but an automated driving system.

For the autonomous mobility business model to be viable, it will be necessary to achieve:

- full vehicle autonomy, eliminating the need for an operator on board each vehicle. In this case, a remote supervisor manages a fleet of vehicles. This makes it possible to rationalize the manpower required to operate a fleet of autonomous vehicles, which can represent up to 40% of the total cost of operating the service;

- large-scale deployment in terms of the number of vehicles on the road, in order to significantly reduce overall costs (vehicle, equipment, etc.) thanks to mass production.

Urbanloop : individual rail capsules for sustainable transport 

Thanks to its expertise in automated mobility – automated metros or autonomous road vehicles – the Keolis group is also exploring an innovative light rail solution. The company in question is Urbanloop, a French startup that has designed a system of individual automated capsules running on dedicated tracks. This technology, which differs from autonomous road vehicles, was successfully deployed during the Paris 2024 Olympic Games at the recreation area in Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, with Keolis providing operational support.

The two fundamental principles of this sustainable transport method are:

- immediate access to service, with capsules waiting for passengers at the station. These can accommodate two passengers, while the next model under development will be able to carry up to ten.

- on-demand circulation with direct service to the selected destination, with no stops at intermediate stations not requested on the route, thus offering unrivalled efficiency in public transport. 

Urbanloop has been a tremendous success in Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, with over 26,000 passengers in less than a year. Keolis operates the service, while its subsidiary Kisio remotely supervises the system from Paris.

This initiative serves as a complement to sustainable urban mobility offers: accessible to all, it takes up little ground space, reduces the carbon footprint thanks to electric propulsion powered by rail - without batteries - and limits road congestion thanks to its dedicated infrastructure.

Supported by partners such as the Keolis group, the Grand Est region and the University of Lorraine, Urbanloop is positioned as an innovative sustainable transport solution, poised for expansion in France and abroad.

Public acceptability, a key factor in the development of these new mobility solutions

Keolis bases its relations with its public partners on listening and dialogue, in order to better understand the challenges facing local areas and implement new transport solutions such as autonomous mobility.

Several studies have been carried out among passengers to find out how they perceive autonomous vehicles, what their level of confidence in them is and, finally, whether they see themselves using them in the future.

Autonomous mobility: what’s next?

Autonomous mobility is booming worldwide. Autonomous vehicles have reached technical maturity with market leaders such as Waymo, WeRide, Pony.ai and more, whether as individual robotaxis or collective or shared robobuses. Commercial services are starting to emerge and capture significant market share.

In partnership with Renault, Keolis plans to launch  an autonomous electric minibus service in Châteauroux, as part of an experiment in real-life conditions. This initiative is part of the Mach2 project, supported by the “France 2030” plan. It brings together several major mobility players – including Alstom, EasyMile, Equans and StatInf – with the support of Châteauroux Métropole and the Indre department. The project aims to deploy a regular service of autonomous vehicles on the road, integrated with the existing offer, with centralized supervision and commercial operation by 2026. The ambition is to take a decisive step towards the widespread use of autonomous mobility services in urban and suburban environments.

In addition, Keolis thinks to introduce autonomous mobility services into existing networks and enhance their complementarity with “conventional” public transport. To achieve this, the company is working with public and private players to advance autonomous driving, explore new service and usage opportunities and transform regions in a sustainable way. Convinced that autonomous mobility enriches the multimodal offer and improves inclusiveness and sustainability, Keolis is working to create a solid value chain around autonomous vehicles and innovative solutions. The Group pays particular attention to safety and public acceptability, as well as to supporting local teams in the new professions dedicated to autonomous mobility.